作业帮谁能帮我翻译这篇英文（续集2）
来源：学生作业帮 编辑：作业帮 分类：英语作业 时间：2024/05/14 10:10:26
谁能帮我翻译这篇英文（续集2）
Information is costly to produce but cheap to reproduce. It can easily cost over a hundred million dollars to produce the first CD of a Hollywood film, while the second CD can cost well under a dollar. This cost structure--high fixed costs and low marginal costs--cause great difficulties for competitive markets.
It's even worse that that. The fixed costs for information goods are not just fixed--they are also sunk. That is, they typically must be incurred prior to production and usually are not recoverable in case of failure. If the movie bombs, there isn't much of a market for its script, no matter how much it cost to produce.
Competitive markets tend to push price to marginal cost, which, in the case of information goods, is close to zero. But this leaves no margin to recover those huge fixed costs. How is it that information can be sold at all?
The obvious answer is that information is rarely traded on competitive markets. Instead, information goods are highly differentiated. Each pop CD is different than the others (or so the listeners think), and each movie is unique. But not too unique. There is still an advantage in encouraging some similarities, due to the reputation effect described earlier.
The market structure for most information goods is one of monopolistic competition. Due to product differentiation, producers have some market power, but the lack of entry restrictions tends to force profits to zero over time.
The fact that information goods generally have some degree of market power also allows producers to recover fixed costs through more creative pricing and marketing arrangements. Price discrimination for information is common: different groups of consumers pay different prices, and quality discrimination is commonplace.
Publishers first issue a book in hardback and then, a year later, in paperback. Film come out first for theaters, then then, 6 months later, on videos. Investors pay one price for real time stock prices and another much lower price for delayed prices. In each of these examples, the sellers use delay to segment in the market by willingness to pay.
There are many other dimensions along which one can ``version'' information goods. Shapiro and Varian (1998) describe several of these dimensions including delay, user interface, convenience, image resolution, format, capability, features, comprehensiveness, annoyance, and support.
Information is costly to produce but cheap to reproduce. It can easily cost over a hundred million dollars to produce the first CD of a Hollywood film, while the second CD can cost well under a dollar. This cost structure--high fixed costs and low marginal costs--cause great difficulties for competitive markets.
It's even worse that that. The fixed costs for information goods are not just fixed--they are also sunk. That is, they typically must be incurred prior to production and usually are not recoverable in case of failure. If the movie bombs, there isn't much of a market for its script, no matter how much it cost to produce.
Competitive markets tend to push price to marginal cost, which, in the case of information goods, is close to zero. But this leaves no margin to recover those huge fixed costs. How is it that information can be sold at all?
The obvious answer is that information is rarely traded on competitive markets. Instead, information goods are highly differentiated. Each pop CD is different than the others (or so the listeners think), and each movie is unique. But not too unique. There is still an advantage in encouraging some similarities, due to the reputation effect described earlier.
The market structure for most information goods is one of monopolistic competition. Due to product differentiation, producers have some market power, but the lack of entry restrictions tends to force profits to zero over time.
The fact that information goods generally have some degree of market power also allows producers to recover fixed costs through more creative pricing and marketing arrangements. Price discrimination for information is common: different groups of consumers pay different prices, and quality discrimination is commonplace.
Publishers first issue a book in hardback and then, a year later, in paperback. Film come out first for theaters, then then, 6 months later, on videos. Investors pay one price for real time stock prices and another much lower price for delayed prices. In each of these examples, the sellers use delay to segment in the market by willingness to pay.
There are many other dimensions along which one can ``version'' information goods. Shapiro and Varian (1998) describe several of these dimensions including delay, user interface, convenience, image resolution, format, capability, features, comprehensiveness, annoyance, and support.
信息是生产起来昂贵,而再生产就会廉价起来.录制一部好莱坞电影的首张CD需要耗资上亿美金,但是复制一下这张CD花费不到一美元.这样的成本结构---高昂的固定成本和极低的边际成本---造成市场竞争困难.
更为严重的是,数据产品的固定成本并不总是固定不变的--他们可能变成沉没成本.意思是指,他们总是招致优先生产但一点失败就难以挽回.如果电影一旦失败,无论生产成本多么高昂,都没有什么市场机会让他去捞回成本.
通常竞争市场倾向于把价格逐渐转变为等于边际成本,然而对于数字产品来说,边际成本接近于0.从而导致没有边际利润来收回那些巨额的生产成本.如果这样的话,这些产品全卖光了会怎么样呢?
最明显的答案是实际上这些产品很少在竞争市场上出售（交易）,而是以高度的差异化进行市场细分.每一个流行音乐CD都不同于其他CD（或者对于听着来说是不同的）,每一部电影都是尤其特点的,但又不是特别独特.当然,鼓励一些相似性也有它的优点,因为这样就能利用先前作品良好的声誉.
对于大多数的数字产品来说,他们的市场结构都属于垄断竞争市场.由于产品细分,生产商具有一定的市场支配力,但是不能完全限制利润随时间逐渐降低的趋势.
信息产品一般具备的市场支配力使得生产商可以通过创造性地市场和价格安排来收回固定成本.信息产品的价格歧视是很常见的：不同消费群体花不同的钱来购买产品,品质差异也就更平常了.
书籍的发行商通常首先发行硬封面版,然后一年后发行平装本.电影则是现在影院公映,然后半年后发行电影光盘.投资商把一部分钱投给股票,另一部分用于延迟价格下降.在以上例子中,销售商用拖延的方式来分割市场中的消费者.
通常除了数字产品的版本外,还有其他因素,根据Shapiro and Varian (1998)的描述,主要包括：拖延,用户界面,便利性,图像清晰度,格式,容量、特点 全面性讨厌着和支持者
更为严重的是,数据产品的固定成本并不总是固定不变的--他们可能变成沉没成本.意思是指,他们总是招致优先生产但一点失败就难以挽回.如果电影一旦失败,无论生产成本多么高昂,都没有什么市场机会让他去捞回成本.
通常竞争市场倾向于把价格逐渐转变为等于边际成本,然而对于数字产品来说,边际成本接近于0.从而导致没有边际利润来收回那些巨额的生产成本.如果这样的话,这些产品全卖光了会怎么样呢?
最明显的答案是实际上这些产品很少在竞争市场上出售（交易）,而是以高度的差异化进行市场细分.每一个流行音乐CD都不同于其他CD（或者对于听着来说是不同的）,每一部电影都是尤其特点的,但又不是特别独特.当然,鼓励一些相似性也有它的优点,因为这样就能利用先前作品良好的声誉.
对于大多数的数字产品来说,他们的市场结构都属于垄断竞争市场.由于产品细分,生产商具有一定的市场支配力,但是不能完全限制利润随时间逐渐降低的趋势.
信息产品一般具备的市场支配力使得生产商可以通过创造性地市场和价格安排来收回固定成本.信息产品的价格歧视是很常见的：不同消费群体花不同的钱来购买产品,品质差异也就更平常了.
书籍的发行商通常首先发行硬封面版,然后一年后发行平装本.电影则是现在影院公映,然后半年后发行电影光盘.投资商把一部分钱投给股票,另一部分用于延迟价格下降.在以上例子中,销售商用拖延的方式来分割市场中的消费者.
通常除了数字产品的版本外,还有其他因素,根据Shapiro and Varian (1998)的描述,主要包括：拖延,用户界面,便利性,图像清晰度,格式,容量、特点 全面性讨厌着和支持者